Introduction

The present chapter studies the Madhyama-āgama parallel to the Dantabhūmi-sutta as yet another instance illustrating the potential of comparative studies of the early discourses. The translation is followed by a discussion of some of the more significant differences to be found between the two versions, which are of particular relevance for the role of satipaṭṭhāna in relation to jhāna attainment.

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Translation

Discourse on the Stages of Taming[n.1] The translated discourse is MĀ 198 at T I 757a3 to T I 759a10; for a comparative study cf. Anālayo 2011: 717–722.

1. Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was dwelling at Rājagaha, staying in the Bamboo Grove at the Squirrels' Feeding Place.

2. At that time the novice Aciravata was also living at Rājagaha, in a forest, staying in a meditation hut. At that time the prince Jīvasena, roaming about during the afternoon, came to where the novice Aciravata was staying, exchanged greetings with him, stepped back to sit to one side and said:[n.2] MĀ 198 at T I 757a7 gives the name of the prince as 耆婆先, where I have followed the indication by Akanuma 1930/1994: 243 that this suggests a name like Jīvasena. MN 125 at MN III 128,9 instead speaks of the prince Jayasena. "Venerable Aciravata, I would like to ask a question, will you listen to my question?"[n.3] This is a standard pericope in Madhyama-āgama discourses, where often a discussion begins with the visitor (to the Buddha or to a monk) making a polite request to be allowed to put a question. Such a polite request occurs comparatively rarely in the Pāli discourses, though an instance of it can be found in MN 109 at MN III 15,23, in which case, however, it is absent from the parallel SĀ 58 at T II 14b17.

The novice Aciravata replied: "Good prince, ask what you wish to ask, having heard it I will consider it." The prince asked: "Aciravata, is it true that a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind?" The novice answered: "Good prince, it is true that a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind."

3. The prince asked further: "Venerable Aciravata, would you completely tell me, according to what you have heard, what you have recited, how a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind?"

The novice answered: "Good prince, I am not able to tell you properly and in detail, according to the Dharma I have heard and have recited, how a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind. Good prince, if I tell the good prince according to the Dharma I have heard and have recited, how a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind, perhaps the good prince will not understand. That would be wearisome for me."

4. The prince said to the novice: "Venerable Aciravata, you are not going to be defeated by others, with what reason in mind do you withdraw yourself?[n.4] Such a remark is not reported in MN 125. Venerable Aciravata, you can tell me, according to the Dharma you have heard, you have recited, how a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind. If I understand, it is good, if I do not understand, I will not ask another question about anything."

5. Then the novice Aciravata told the prince Jīvasena, according to the Dharma he had heard, he had recited, how a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind.

Then the prince Jīvasena said: "Venerable Aciravata, that a monk in this Dharma and discipline who is not negligent and practises diligently reaches unification of the mind, that is not possible", and having made this declaration of impossibility he right away got up from his seat and left without bidding farewell.

6. Not long after the prince Jīvasena had left, the novice Aciravata went to the Buddha, paid homage with his head, stepped back to sit to one side and told the Buddha all the conversation [that had taken place] with the prince Jīvasena. When the Buddha had heard it, he said to the novice:

7. "Aciravata, wait.[n.5] MĀ 198 at T I 757b8: 止, literally: "stop". How could prince Jīvasena attain [understanding]? Engaging in sensual pleasures, attached to sensual pleasures, consumed by craving for sensual pleasures, subject to the fever of sensual pleasures, that the prince should know or see the stage [to be attained] by abandoning sensual pleasures, abandoning the craving for sensual pleasures, abandoning the fever of sensual pleasures, this stage [to be attained] by dispassionate knowledge, dispassionate vision, dispassionate realization, that is not possible. Why? Aciravata, [because] prince Jīvasena continuously engages in sensual pleasures.

8. "Aciravata, it is just like four tameable [beings], a tameable elephant, a tameable horse, a tameable ox and a tameable man.[n.6] MN 125 at MN III 130,2 instead contrasts two tamed elephants, two tamed horses and two tamed oxen with two untamed elephants, two untamed horses and two untamed oxen. An additional reference to "men", 人, recurs in MĀ 212 at T I 794a29 in the context of a listing of elephants, horses and oxen, in which case the counterpart in MN 90 at MN II 129,4 also does not bring in "men". Of them two tameable [beings] resist taming, and two tameable [beings] accept taming. Aciravata, what do you think? That the two tameable [beings] that resist taming, that are untamed and have not [reached] the stage of taming, being untamed should experience the state of taming, is that not impossible? But that the two tameable [beings] that accept taming, that are well tamed, have been tamed and have ... [reached] the stage of taming,[n.7] MĀ 198 at T I 757b18 at this point actually reads "have not [reached] the stage of taming", 未調地, just as in the earlier case of the two untamed beings, which the context suggests to be a textual error. being tamed should experience the state of taming, that is certainly possible.

"Thus, Aciravata, let it be. How could prince Jīvasena attain [understanding]? Engaging in sensual pleasures, attached to sensual pleasures, consumed by craving for sensual pleasures, subject to the fever of sensual pleasures, that the prince should know or see the stage [to be attained] by abandoning sensual pleasures, abandoning the craving for sensual pleasures, abandoning the fever of sensual pleasures, this stage [to be attained] by dispassionate knowledge, dispassionate vision, dispassionate realization, that is not possible. Why? Aciravata, [because] prince Jīvasena continuously engages in sensual pleasures.

9. "Aciravata, it is just like a great rocky mountain not far from a village, complete and without crevices, solid and not hollow, firm and immovable, that is altogether a single [mass].[n.8] MN 125 at MN III 130,24 simply speaks of a great mountain, without further describing it. Suppose two men have the wish to take a proper look. One of them quickly climbs the mountain, the second man remains at the bottom of the mountain. The man on top of the rocky mountain sees that on the [other] side of the rocky mountain there is beautiful level ground, with scenic gardens, woodland groves, clear springs, flower ponds and long flowing rivers. Having seen this, the man on top of the mountain says to the man at the bottom of the mountain: 'Do you see that on the [other] side of the mountain there is beautiful level ground, with scenic gardens, woodland groves, clear springs, flower ponds and long flowing rivers?'[n.9] In MN 125 at MN III 130,29 it is the man standing below who inquires from the man on top of the mountain what he is able to see. This fits the simile better, since for the man on top of the mountain it should be self evident that the man below is not able to see the sights, so that there would be little need for him to ask the man at the bottom of the mountain if he could see the scenery. This would also better illustrate the encounter between the prince and the novice, since the prince, similar to the man at the bottom of the mountain, had inquired about something that he could not see himself. The man standing at the bottom of the mountain replies: 'As I see this mountain, that on its [other] side there should be beautiful level ground, with scenic gardens, woodland groves, clear springs, flower ponds and long flowing rivers, that is not possible!'

"Then the man on top of the rocky mountain quickly comes down, takes hold of the man at the bottom of the mountain and quickly takes him up. When they have reached the top of the rocky mountain he asks him: 'Do you see that on the [other] side of the mountain there is beautiful level ground, with scenic gardens, woodland groves, clear springs, flower ponds and long flowing rivers?' The other man replies: 'Only now I see it'. Then [the first man] again asks the other man: 'At first you said that to see this is not possible, but now you say you see it. What is the reason for this?' The other man replies: 'At first I was obstructed by the mountain, therefore I could not see'.[n.10] In MN 125 at MN III 131,19 the Buddha concludes the simile by explaining that the mass of ignorance obstructing the prince is even greater than such a mountain.

10. "Thus, Aciravata, let it be. How could prince Jīvasena attain [understanding]? Engaging in sensual pleasures, attached to sensual pleasures, consumed by craving for sensual pleasures, subject to the fever of sensual pleasures, that the prince should know or see the stage [to be attained] by abandoning sensual pleasures, abandoning the craving for sensual pleasures, abandoning the fever of sensual pleasures, this stage [to be attained] by dispassionate knowledge, dispassionate vision, dispassionate realization, that is not possible.[n.11] In MN 125 at MN III 131,29 the Buddha tells Aciravata that if he had delivered these two similes, the prince would have acquired confidence in him, to which Aciravata replies that these similes did not occur to him as he had not heard them earlier.

12. "Aciravata, in former times a head-anointed warrior king had an elephant hunter. The king said to him: 'You, elephant hunter, catch a forest elephant for me and bring him. When you have got him, tell me!' Then, having received the king's instructions, the elephant hunter quickly mounted the royal elephant and went into the forest woods. In the forest woods the elephant hunter saw a large forest elephant, and having seen him he caught and bound him, attaching him to the royal elephant's neck. Then the royal elephant brought the forest elephant out into the open.

"The elephant hunter returned to the head-anointed warrior king and said: 'Great king, the forest elephant has been obtained, he is bound and in the open. The great king may do as he pleases. On hearing this the head-anointed warrior king said: 'Good elephant tamer, you may now quickly tame that forest elephant, make him submit so that he [becomes] a well tamed elephant, and when he is well tamed, come back and tell me'.[n.12] In relation to taming and also in relation to catching the elephant, according to MN 125 at MN III 132,2+15 the king gives more detailed instructions to the elephant trainer on how he should undertake these tasks.

"Having received the king's instructions, the good elephant tamer took hold of a large post, put it on his right shoulder, went to where the forest elephant was, planted the post in the ground and bound the forest elephant to it by the neck, [in order to] control [the elephant's] intentions of delighting in the forest, to discard his thoughts of desire for the forest, to stop his forest weariness, so that he [will come to] delight in the village and city, and develop a liking for men. The good elephant tamer then began by giving him fodder and drink.

"Aciravata, when that forest elephant for the first time accepted fodder and drink from the elephant tamer, the good elephant tamer thought: 'Now this forest elephant will certainly live. Why? [Because] this forest elephant has for the first time accepted fodder and drink'.

"When that forest elephant for the first time accepted fodder and drink from the elephant tamer, the good elephant tamer used soft and agreeable words to tell him:[n.13] In MN 125 at MN III 133,3 the elephant tamer gives the first food only after the elephant has started to give ear to the friendly words addressed to him by the elephant tamer. 'Lie down, get up! Go, come back! Take up, put down! Bend, stretch!' When that forest elephant, on being addressed by the elephant tamer with soft and agreeable words, lay down and got up, went and came back, took up and put down, bent and stretched, then like this the forest elephant followed the instructions of the elephant tamer.

"Aciravata, when that forest elephant had obeyed the instructions of the elephant tamer, the good elephant tamer bound his two front feet, his back feet, his two hind parts, his two sides, his tail, his forehead, his ears, his tusks and also his trunk.[n.14] According to MN 125 at MN III 133,17, the elephant tamer bound a great plank to the elephant's body. A man holding a goad was made to mount on his neck, and many people were made to stand in front of him holding swords, shields, spears, lances, halberds, hatchets and axes. Holding a sharp halberd in his hand and standing in front of the forest elephant, the good elephant tamer said: 'I will now train you in imperturbability, you must not move!'[n.15] MĀ 198 at T I 758a9: 不移動. MĀ 191 at T I 738c16 uses the same 不移 動 where its counterpart MN 122 at MN III 112,9 speaks of āṇañja (Be, Ce and Se read āneñja), corresponding to mi g.yo ba in its Tibetan counterpart in Skilling 1994b: 214,6. Another occurrence of āṇañja in MN 106 at MN II 262,15 (Be, Ce and Se again read āneñja) has as its counterpart just 不動 in MĀ 75 at T I 542b24.

"When at the time of being trained in imperturbability by the elephant tamer, that forest elephant did not lift his front feet, did not move his back feet, his two hind parts, his two sides, his tail, his forehead, his ears, his tusks or his trunk, not moving any of these, then like this the forest elephant followed the elephant tamer's [instructions] by remaining imperturbable.

"Aciravata, when that forest elephant followed the elephant tamer's [instructions] by remaining imperturbable, at that time he put up with swords, shields, spears, lances, halberds, hatchets and axes, and the sound of loud shouting. At that time he was able to endure any yelling, blowing of conches, beating of drums and striking of bells – being able to endure all of that. When that forest elephant could endure it, at that time he was tamed, well tamed, had reached the higher taming, had reached the supreme taming, [was endowed with] superior swiftness, unsurpassable swiftness, was fit for being ridden by the king, to receive fodder from the king's granary and to be acclaimed a royal elephant.

13. "It is like this, Aciravata, at a time when a Tathāgata arises in the world, free from attachment,[n.16] MĀ 198 at T I 758a19: 無所著 a standard rendition in the Madhyama-āgama of "arahant" as an epithet of the Buddha. Nattier, 2003b: 218, suggests that the rendering 無所著 could be inspired by an exegetical tradition similar to the gloss on this epithet offered in Vism 198,12, which explains that the Buddha "is aloof from all defilements ... because of being aloof he is an arahant", ārakā hi so sabbakilesehi ... ārakattā arahaṃ (cf. also AN 7.80 at AN IV 145,2: ārakattā arahā hoti). Discourses in the Dīrgha-āgama and the Saṃyukta-āgamas translate this second epithet of the Buddha more appropriately as "worthy of offerings", 應供; cf., e.g., DĀ 10 at T I 83c4, SĀ 395 at T II 106c7 and SĀ2 156 at T II 432c10. fully awakened, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, well gone, knower of the worlds, the unsurpassable person, charioteer of the Dharma,[n.17] MĀ 198 at T I 758a20: 無上士, 道法御, counterpart to the "unsurpassable leader of persons to be tamed" in MN 125 at MN III 134,2 (supplemented from MN I 179,2); cf. above note 26 page 170. teacher of gods and men, called a Buddha, an Assembly of Blessings.[n.18] MĀ 198 at T I 758a20: 眾祐; cf. above note 27 page 170f. He has known and realized for himself this world [with its] gods and Māras, [with its] Brahmās, [with its] recluses and brahmins, from men to gods, and dwells having himself accomplished realization. He teaches a Dharma that is sublime in the beginning, sublime in the middle and sublime in the end, that has [proper] meaning and expression, and he reveals a holy life that is completely pure.

"A householder's son hears that Dharma taught by him. On hearing it, the householder's son gains confidence in the Dharma taught by the Tathāgata.[n.19] The standard Pāli accounts of the gradual path at this point report the reflection of the householder that the household life is crowded and dusty, whereas to go forth is out in the open. Though this type of reflection is not found in MĀ 198, a similar type of reflection occurs in other Madhyamaāgama discourses; cf., e.g., MĀ 80 at T I 552b12, MĀ 146 at T I 657a5 and MĀ 187 at T I 733a18, of which the last two are counterparts to Pāli versions of this reflection in MN 27 at MN I 179,12 and in MN 112 at MN III 33,8. Having gained confidence, he shaves of his beard and hair, puts on monastic robes and out of confidence leaves home, becomes homeless to train in the path.

"Aciravata, at that time the noble disciple comes out into the open, just like the king's forest elephant [was brought out into the open]. Just as the forest elephant has lust, desire, delight and attachment, namely for staying in the forest,[n.20] Though MN 125 at this point does not bring in the forest elephant, in its earlier description of the catching of the elephant at MN III 132,10 it also mentions that the forest elephant is attached to the forest. so, Aciravata, gods and men have desire, lust, delight and attachment, namely for the five strands of sensual pleasure of forms, sounds, odours, tastes and tangibles.

15. "The Tathāgata at first tames that monk: 'You should maintain purity of livelihood in body, maintain purity of livelihood in speech and in mind!'

16. "When the noble disciple maintains purity of livelihood in body, maintains purity of livelihood in speech and in mind, the Tathāgata further tames the monk:[n.21] Before taking up the practice of satipaṭṭhāna, MN 125 has the standard account of the gradual path, which covers sense restraint, contentment with food, wakefulness, the practice of mindfulness together with clear comprehension and the removal of the five hindrances.

22. "'You should contemplate the body as body internally... (up to) ... contemplate feelings, mental states and dharmas as dharmas!'[n.22] MĀ 198 at T I 758b3: 汝當觀內身如身, 乃至觀覺, 心, 法如法. The injunction to contemplate "internally", ajjhattaṃ, is part of the instruction for contemplating body, feelings, mental states and dharmas in MN 10 at MN I 56,27. When the noble disciple contemplates the body as body internally ... (up to) ... contemplates feelings, mental states and dharmas as dharmas,[n.23] According to MN 125 at MN III 136,4, such practice is undertaken ātāpī sampajāno satimā, vineyya loke abhijjhādomanassaṃ. A counterpart to this type of stipulation is not only absent from MĀ 198, but also from MĀ 98, the parallel to the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta, MN 10. A Sanskrit fragment with instructions on the development of mindfulness, however, has preserved this injunction; cf. SHT I 614 V1–3, Waldschmidt 1965: 272: ātāpi smṛtimāṃ saṃprajāna viniyābhidhyā l[o]k[e daur]manasyaṃ. then these four establishings of mindfulness are what is called a settling in the noble disciple's mind, binding that mind, to control intentions of delighting in the household, to discard thoughts of desire for the household, to stop the household weariness, so that he delights in the right Dharma and in developing noble conduct.

23. "Aciravata, just as the elephant tamer, having received the king's instructions, took hold of a large post, put it on his right shoulder, went to where the forest elephant was, planted the post in the ground and bound the forest elephant to it by the neck, [in order to] control [the elephant's] intentions of delighting in the forest, to discard his thoughts of desire for the forest, to stop his forest weariness, so that he [will come to] delight in the village and city, and develop a liking for men. Like this, Aciravata, these four establishings of mindfulness are called settlings in the noble disciple's mind, binding that mind, to control intentions of delighting in the household, to discard thoughts of desire for the household, to stop the household weariness, so that he delights in the right Dharma and in developing noble conduct.[n.24] MN 125 at MN III 136,18 instead concludes that the four satipaṭṭhānas lead to obtaining the [proper] method and to realizing Nirvāṇa.

24. "When the noble disciple contemplates the body as body internally ... (up to) ... contemplates feelings, mental states and dharmas as dharmas, then the Tathāgata further tames the monk: 'You should contemplate the body as body internally, do not think a thought related to sensual pleasures... (up to) ... contemplate feelings, mental states and dharmas as dharmas, do not think a thought related to what is not rightful!'[n.25] MĀ 198 at T I 758b15: 莫念欲相應念, 乃至觀覺, 心, 法如法, 莫念非法 相應念. The Ee edition of MN 125 at MN III 136,21 and Se instead instruct not to think a thought "related to the body", mā ca kāyūpasaṃhitaṃ vitakkaṃ vitakkesi, and continue in the same way in regard to the remaining three satipaṭṭhānas by enjoining to avoid thoughts related to the objects of mindfulness practice, mā ca vedanūpasaṃhitaṃ vitakkaṃ ... mā ca cittūpasaṃhitaṃ vitakkaṃ ... mā ca dhammūpasaṃhitaṃ vitakkaṃ vitakkesi (with the instructions for feelings and mind abbreviated in Se). Be and Ce instruct in all four cases: "do not think a though related to sensuality", mā ca kāmūpasaṃhitaṃ vitakkaṃ vitakkesi. In the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā, Dutt 1934/2000: 204,2, a description of body contemplation also stipulates not thinking thoughts related to the body, na ca kāyasahagatān vitarkān vitarkayati, similar to the instructions given in Ee and Se. When the noble disciple contemplates the body as body internally and does not think a thought related to sensual pleasures ... (up to) ... contemplates feelings, mental states and dharmas as dharmas and does not think a thought related to what is not rightful, then like this the noble disciple follows the instructions of the Tathāgata.

"Aciravata, just as the forest elephant who, on being addressed by the elephant tamer with soft and agreeable words, lay down and got up, went and came back, took up and put down, bent and stretched, like this the forest elephant followed the instructions of the elephant tamer.[n.26] MN 125 does not provide this relation to the simile of taming the elephant. Another difference is that the activities of bending and stretching are not mentioned in the Pāli version's earlier description of this stage of training the elephant. By including these activities, MĀ 198 at T I 758b20 provides a closer relationship between the instructions to the elephant and the instructions for contemplating bodily activities given in MN 10 at MN I 57,5 and MĀ 98 at T I 582b25, which in addition to the activities of going forward and backward, abhikkante paṭikkante / 出入, of carrying (a bowl etc.) dhāraṇe / 著, and of sitting and lying down, nisinne sutte / 坐臥, also mention the activities of bending and stretching, samiñjite pasārite / 屈伸. Like this, Aciravata, when the noble disciple contemplates the body as body internally and does not think a thought related to sensual pleasures... (up to) ... contemplates feelings, mental states and dharmas as dharmas and does not think a thought related to what is not rightful, then like this the noble disciple follows the instructions of the Tathāgata.

25. "When the noble disciple follows the instructions of the Tathāgata, the Tathāgata further tames the monk: 'you should dwell secluded from sensual desires, secluded from evil and unwholesome states ... (up to) ... attain and dwell having accomplished the fourth absorption!'[n.27] Though on reading the English translation this might not be immediately evident, the formulation in MĀ 198 at T I 758b25 leaves no doubt that, in spite of the abbreviation found at this point, the first absorption is explicitly taken into account. When the noble disciple dwells secluded from sensual desires, secluded from evil and unwholesome states ... (up to) ... attains and dwells having accomplished the fourth absorption, then like this the noble disciple has followed the Tathāgata and has become established in imperturbability.

"Aciravata, just as at the time of being instructed by the elephant tamer in imperturbability, the forest elephant did not lift the front feet, did not move the back feet, his two hind parts, his two sides, his tail, his forehead, his ears, his tusks and also his trunk, then like this the forest elephant followed the elephant tamer's instructions on imperturbability.[n.28] MN 125 does not provide this relation to the simile of taming the elephant. Like this, Aciravata, when the noble disciple dwells secluded from sensual desires, secluded from evil and unwholesome states ... (up to) ... attains and dwells having accomplished the fourth absorption, then like this the noble disciple has followed the Tathāgata and become established in imperturbability.[n.29] MN 125 at MN III 136,30 continues with the attainment of the three higher knowledges, not mentioned in MĀ 198.

30. "When by following the Tathāgata the noble disciple has been established in imperturbability, then at that time he is able to bear affliction by hunger and thirst, cold and heat, mosquitoes and gadflies, flies and fleas, wind and sun, and bad words, he can also endure being beaten with sticks.[n.30] MĀ 198 at T I 758c8: 捶杖. The corresponding description in MN 125 at MN III 136,33 does not envisage that the disciple could be beaten with sticks. Any disease of the body that causes the utmost pain [and even] cuts off desire for life, all these discomforts he can bear.

"Aciravata, just as when the forest elephant followed the elephant tamer and remained imperturbable, at that time he put up with swords, shields, spears, lances, halberds, hatchets and axes, and the sound of loud shouting. He was able to endure any yelling, blowing of conches, beating of drums and striking of bells – being able to endure all of that.[n.31] MN 125 does not provide this relation to the simile of the taming of the elephant. Like this, Aciravata, when by following the Tathāgata the noble disciple has been established in imperturbability, then at that time he is able to bear affliction by hunger and thirst, cold and heat, mosquitoes and gadflies, flies and fleas, wind and sun, and bad words, he can also endure being beaten with sticks. Any disease of the body that causes the utmost pain [and even] cuts off desire for life, all these discomforts he can bear.

"Aciravata, when the noble disciple follows [the instructions of] the Tathāgata and is able to bear up [with all of this], at that time he is tamed, well tamed, has reached the higher taming, the supreme taming, has reached the higher peace, the supreme peace, has discarded all crookedness, fear, stupidity and deceitfulness, he has become pure, has settled the dust, is free from dirt, free from filth, fit to be praised, fit to be invited, fit to be revered, fit to be respected, truly fit for offerings, an excellent field of merit for all gods and men.[n.32] MN 125 at MN III 137,3 instead relates the worthiness of the disciple to his having rid himself of all lust, hatred and delusion, and being purged of flaws.

"Aciravata, just as when that forest elephant could endure all, at that time he was tamed, well tamed, had reached the higher taming, had reached the supreme taming, [was endowed with] superior swiftness, unsurpassable swiftness, was fit for being ridden by the king, to receive fodder from the king's granary and to be acclaimed a royal elephant. Like this, Aciravata, when the noble disciple follows [the instructions of] the Tathāgata and is able to bear up [with all of this], at that time he is tamed, well tamed, has reached the higher taming, the supreme taming, has reached the higher peace, the supreme peace, has discarded all crookedness, fear, stupidity and deceitfulness, he has become pure, has settled the dust, is free from dirt, free from filth, fit to be praised, fit to be invited, fit to be revered, fit to be respected, truly fit for offerings, an excellent field of merit for all gods and men.

31. "Aciravata, a young forest elephant who dies untamed is reckoned to have 'died untamed', a middle-aged ... an old elephant who dies untamed is reckoned to have 'died untamed'. Aciravata, a young noble disciple who dies untamed is reckoned to have 'died untamed', a middle-aged ... an old noble disciple who dies untamed is reckoned to have 'died untamed'.[n.33] MN 125 at MN III 137,12 instead speaks of young, middle aged and old disciples who "have not destroyed the influxes". As the Pāli version earlier took up the three higher knowledges, the imagery in both versions accords with their respective expositions of the training of the disciple.

32. "Aciravata, a young forest elephant who dies well tamed is reckoned to have 'died well tamed', a middle-aged ... an old elephant who dies well tamed is reckoned to have 'died well tamed'. Aciravata, a young noble disciple who dies well tamed is reckoned to have 'died well tamed', a middle-aged ... an old noble disciple who dies well tamed is reckoned to have 'died well tamed'.

The Buddha spoke like this. The novice Aciravata and the monks, having listened to what the Buddha said, were delighted and received it respectfully.

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Study

Looking back on the Madhyama-āgama version, it is noteworthy that while its depiction of the stages of taming an elephant is similar to the Dantabhūmi-sutta, its account of the taming of a monk differs considerably from the Pāli version. While the Chinese discourse proceeds from a basis in moral conduct directly to the practice of the satipaṭṭhānas, the Pāli discourse follows moral conduct with sense restraint, contentment, wakefulness, the practice of mindfulness together with clear comprehension, and the removal of the five hindrances, after which only it turns to the practice of the satipaṭṭhānas. The Pāli version's presentation in this way corresponds to the standard descriptions of the gradual path in other discourses. Due to giving such a full account of the gradual path, the Dantabhūmi-sutta takes up satipaṭṭhāna only subsequent to the removal of the five hindrances, at a stage of the gradual path where normally the development of the absorption has its place.

This positioning of satipaṭṭhāna is unexpected, since according to the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta and its Madhyama-āgama parallel awareness of the presence of the five hindrances is an integral part of satipaṭṭhāna practice.[n.34] MN 10 at MN I 60,11 and MĀ 98 at T I 584a24. A discourse in the Aṅguttara-nikāya even recommends the practice of satipaṭṭhāna in order to overcome the five hindrances.[n.35] AN 9.64 at AN IV 458,4. Thus one would not expect satipaṭṭhāna practice to be appropriately placed only after a removal of the five hindrances.

According to the Dantabhūmi-sutta and its parallel, the function of satipaṭṭhāna at this point is to overcome thoughts related to the household life.[n.36] MN 125 at MN III 136,16 and MĀ 198 at T I 758b6. From the perspective of the Pāli discourse, this specification is puzzling, since if the practice of satipaṭṭhāna were to take place after the five hindrances have already been removed, there would be little need for it to perform the function of overcoming thoughts related to the household life.[n.37] Ps IV 199,12 explains that the expression "habits [related to] the household life" refers to habits based on the [enjoyment of] the five strands of sensual pleasure, gehasitasīlānan ti pañcakāmaguṇanissitasīlānaṃ. Concern with enjoyment of the five strands of sensual pleasure would have been left behind once the five hindrances have been successfully overcome.

When faced with such variations, it is often not easy to come to an unequivocal decision about which of the two versions could be preserving a more authentic record of the discourse. Oral transmission involves the possibility of accidental loss but also the possibility that a text may have been expanded because a key term caused the reciter(s) to supplement a standard pericope or formula.[n.38] Cf. the observation by von Hinüber 1996/1997: 31, quoted above note 44 page 26.

Exploring this second possibility, an expansion of the original account could have taken place along the lines of a full treatment of the gradual path of training. That is, the long account of the disciple's sense restraint, contentment, wakefulness, practice of mindfulness together with clear comprehension and removal of the five hindrances, found in the Pāli version, could be such an expansion. It may not be too far-fetched to assume that during oral transmission a reference to the arising of a Tathāgata could have caused the reciter(s) to continue with a full account of the gradual path, as such a full account would normally be required when a reference to the arising of a Tathāgata comes up during the recitation of a discourse.

If this section in the Pāli version should have been expanded during oral transmission, the treatment of satipaṭṭhāna, which usually is not explicitly mentioned in accounts of the gradual path, would thereby have been displaced to a later section of the discourse. Such a displacement would explain why satipaṭṭhāna stands in a place where usually one finds the absorptions, a placing that does not fit the purpose that satipaṭṭhāna should perform at this junction according to the Dantabhūmi-sutta and its parallel, namely overcoming thoughts related to the household life.

Another noteworthy difference is that the Madhyama-āgama version concludes its description of the disciple's training with the fourth absorption, whereas the Pāli version also takes the three higher knowledges into account. By not mentioning the destruction of the influxes, the Madhyama-āgama presentation strikes at first sight an unfamiliar note, since the destruction of the influxes usually constitutes the culmination of an account of the training of a disciple.

Once the possibility is granted that the part preceding satipaṭṭhāna could, in the Pāli version, have been accidentally expanded along the lines of the standard gradual path account, then the same procedure also offers a possible explanation for the appearance of the three higher knowledges at the end of the Pāli version. Alternatively, the Chinese version could have lost the treatment of the three higher knowledges.

In evaluating this particular difference, it needs to be born in mind that the topic of the two parallel versions is how a disciple can, by dint of diligent practice, reach unification of the mind. From this perspective, an account of the disciple's training until the attainment of the fourth absorption would be sufficient, as with the fourth jhāna complete unification of the mind has indeed been accomplished.

The presentation in the Madhyama-āgama version could also call for support two discourses in the Aṅguttara-nikāya, which compare qualities of a trained elephant to qualities of a disciple. These two discourses describe how a disciple overcomes unwholesome thoughts and develops the ability to patiently bear the vicissitudes of climate, etc., which they compare to an elephant's ability to patiently bear a battle situation.[n.39] AN 4.114 at AN II 117,31 and AN 5.140 at AN III 163,29. The same two discourses continue by comparing a disciple who swiftly approaches liberation to an elephant's ability to approach swiftly any place his trainer wants him to go to. Since the Dantabhūmi-sutta and its parallel do not describe how the elephant swiftly approaches any place his trainer wants him to go to, but stop with the elephant's ability to bear a battle situation patiently, their corresponding account of the disciple's training would also find its proper conclusion with the attainment of the absorptions, without taking up the attainment of final liberation.

However, even though the three higher knowledges are not required from the perspective of the topic of the discourse and do not seem to be taken into account as a separate stage in the simile of the taming of the elephant, their appearance does not create any internal inconsistency in the discourse. Hence in this case it not entirely straightforward to decide which of the two versions has preserved the better account.

Another significant difference is that, from satipaṭṭhāna practice without thoughts, the Dantabhūmi-sutta continues with the attainment of the second absorption, whereas its Madhyama-āgama counterpart also takes the first absorption into account. This difference could in principle be the result of an addition on the side of the Madhyama-āgama discourse or of a loss of material on the side of the Pāli version.

Due to the nature of oral transmission, it could easily have happened that a reference to the first absorption was supplemented in accordance with standard descriptions of the four absorptions found elsewhere. Similarly, from the perspective of oral transmission the occurrence of the word vitakka in the passage on satipaṭṭhāna without thought could easily have led to a lapse on the part of the reciter(s) of the discourse, who continued straight away with the calming of vitakka mentioned at the outset of the second absorption formula, thereby unintentionally dropping the first absorption in between.[n.40] A complementary case occurs in MN 19 at MN I 117,6 and its parallel MĀ 102 at T I 589c10, where the Chinese version omits the first absorption and proceeds directly from overcoming wholesome thoughts to the second absorption, whereas the Pāli version does take the first absorption into account. To decide between these two possibilities requires a closer look at the nature of the first absorption.

A discourse in the Saṃyutta-nikāya and its Saṃyukta-āgama parallel reckon the second absorption to be a noble type of "silence".[n.41] SN 21.1 at SN II 273,14: dutiyaṃ jhānam upasampajja viharati, ayaṃ vuccati ariyo tuṇhībhāvo ti, SĀ 501 at T II 132a19: 第二禪具足住, 是名聖默然. Discourses from the same two collections also indicate that with the first absorption speech has ceased.[n.42] SN 36.11 at SN IV 217,5: pathamaṃ jhānaṃ (Be and Ce: paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ, Se: paṭhamajjhānaṃ) samāpannassa vācā niruddhā hoti, SĀ 474 at T II 121b2: 初禪正受時, 言語寂滅, This makes it clear that the reference to "silence" is not meant in a literal sense. The point behind the idea of noble silence would rather be related to the function of the two absorption factors vitakka and vicāra as verbal formations,[n.43] SN 41.6 at SN IV 293,15: vitakkavicārā vacīsaṅkhāro and SĀ 568 at T II 150a24: 有覺, 有觀, 名為口行. Another occurrence of this definition in MN 44 at MN I 301,21 has a similarly worded Tibetan counterpart in D 4094 mngon pa, ju 8a5 or Q 5595 tu 9a5: rtog pa dang dpyod pa ni ngag gi ’du byed ces bya’o. in that these mental factors are required for being able to speak. The same two mental factors can also be employed in a way that does not involve breaking into speech, merely standing for a directing of the mind towards a theme or object and sustaining it there.[n.44] In a discussion of the nature of vitakka, Cousins 1992: 139 speaks of "the activity of bringing different objects into firm focus before the mind's eye – be these objects thoughts or mental pictures". Shankman 2008: 40 explains that, though in the context of the first absorption vitakka and vicāra must be representing some degree of mental activity, they "should never be understood as thinking or musing in the ordinary sense".

That in the context of absorption attainment vitakka does not refer to conceptual thought would also have been the understanding of the translator(s) of the Madhyama-āgama, as they instead speak of "awareness", a rendering found also in other Āgama discourses.[n.45] Descriptions of the first absorption in each of the four main Chinese Āgamas have as their counterpart to savitakka the expression 有覺; cf. DĀ 9 at T I 50c19 (parallel to DN 33 at DN III 222,5); MĀ 2 at T I 422b12 (parallel to AN 7.65 at AN IV 118,21); SĀ 483 at T II 123b1 (parallel to SN 36.29 at SN IV 236,3); and EĀ 31.1 at T II 666b13 (parallel to MN 4 at MN I 21,35). Hirakawa 1997: 1062 lists √budh, √jñā and √vid for 覺, which Soothill 1937/2000: 480 translates as "to awake, apprehend, perceive, realize" and also as to be "aware". The term 觀 as an equivalent to vicāra usually renders terms related to √paś in the Madhyama-āgama, such as, e.g., vipaśyanā or anupaśyanā, "insight" or "contemplation". By using this particular Chinese character for this absorption factor, different from the character they employ elsewhere to render "thought",[n.46] Thus, e.g., MĀ 102 at T I 589c9 uses 覺 in the context of absorption, but in the same line of the text employs 念 to refer to "thoughts", both occurrences paralleling the use of the same word vitakka in its parallel MN 19 at MN I 116,35 and 117,7. The use of these different renderings does convey the impression that the translator(s) were aware of the difference between these two types of vitakka and endeavoured to render them in such a way that they would not be confused with each other. the translators seem to express their understanding of its practical implications. This would fit with an interpretation of the absorption factor vitakka as conveying the idea of an application of the mind, in the sense of a directing of awareness that can take place in rather subtle ways.

According to the autobiographical account of the Buddha's own progress towards absorption, he had to struggle through various mental obstructions before being able to attain the first absorption.[n.47] MN 128 at MN III 157,29 and MĀ 72 at T I 536c19. The same discourse reports the advice given by the Buddha to Anuruddha, who experienced similar difficulties, while another Pāli discourse describes that the Buddha had to assist Mahāmoggallāna in attaining the first absorption.[n.48] SN 40.1 at SN IV 263,18. This is significant in view of the fact that according to the canonical listings of eminent disciples Anuruddha and Mahāmoggallāna excelled all other disciples with their concentrative attainments.[n.49] According to AN 1.14 at AN I 23,18+20 and EĀ 4.2 at T II 557b6+9, Mahāmoggallāna was outstanding for his mastery of supernormal powers and Anuruddha for his divine eye. For them to nevertheless be described as needing the Buddha's personal intervention to attain the first absorption makes it clear that this level of concentration was considered to require a considerable amount of meditation practice and expertise even in the case of gifted practitioners. This in turn implies that the first absorption already constitutes a deep level of concentration, a state of mental unification that is beyond mere conceptual thinking and reflection.[n.50] In fact, AN 10.72 at AN V 135,1 indicates that "sound is a thorn for the first absorption", paṭhamassa jhānassa saddo kaṇṭako, a statement made similarly in its parallel MĀ 84 at T I 561a7: "for one who has attained the first absorption sound becomes a thorn", 入初禪者以聲為刺. Since both versions continue by describing factors that need to be overcome for attaining the higher absorptions as their respective "thorns", it follows that from the perspective of both discourses during attainment of the first absorption hearing no longer takes place in the way it ordinarily does.

The presentation in the Dantabhūmi-sutta, however, seems to imply that the practice of satipaṭṭhāna can become an equivalent to the attainment of the first absorption. Though satipaṭṭhāna meditation functions as an important foundation for the development of the absorptions,[n.51] The foundational role of satipaṭṭhāna for deeper levels of concentration can be seen in DN 18 at DN II 216,12, SN 52.6 at SN V 299,19 or SN 52.11– 24 at SN V 303,3 to 306,2. satipaṭṭhāna in itself does not constitute a form of absorption. A central characteristic of satipaṭṭhāna meditation is to be aware of the changing nature of phenomena, whereas absorption attainment requires concentration on a single and stable object. Already with the first absorption mental unification has been reached,[n.52] MN 43 at MN I 294,31, MĀ 210 at T I 788c20 and D 4094 ju 8a1 or Q 5595 tu 8b8 list unification of the mind as one of the factors of the first absorption. a condition of the mind that does not seem to be compatible with awareness of changing phenomena. Therefore it appears improbable that practice of satipaṭṭhāna enables one to attain the second absorption directly, without any need to develop the first absorption.

In sum, on evaluating the two possible ways of explaining the difference between the Dantabhūmi-sutta and its Madhyama-āgama parallel regarding the first absorption, it seems probable that a loss of text has occurred in the Pāli version, whereas the Chinese discourse appears to preserve the more original presentation that includes a reference to the first absorption.

Another case of loss on the side of the Dantabhūmi-sutta seems to have occurred regarding the relationship between the various stages of taming the forest elephant and the training of the disciple. The Madhyama-āgama version compares thought-free satipaṭṭhāna to the stage of taming during which the elephant is taught to obey orders, while the disciple's level of mental imperturbability reached after attaining the four absorptions finds its illustration in the stage of imperturbability reached in the training of the elephant.

Though the Dantabhūmi-sutta portrays the same stages of taming the elephant, it does not relate these stages of the elephant's taming to the stages of training the disciple. Since the "stages of taming" are the central topic of both discourses, the stages of the elephant's taming may well have been intended to illustrate several successive stages of training a disciple, as they still do in the Chinese discourse.

Thus the Madhyama-āgama parallel to the Dantabhūmi-sutta offers significant perspectives on its Pāli counterpart, enabling the detection of what appear to be the type of error that is bound to affect material that has gone through a long period of oral transmission.